
Researcher @Cambridge_Uni. PhD in evolutionary psychiatry. Explaining neurodiversity, improving methods & stigma. 'Evolving Psychiatry' podcast host.
Cambridge, England
Joined February 2019
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🚨Just published in the British Journal of Psychiatry!🚨
Evolutionary explanations of anxiety rated as 5x more useful for patients and 3x more useful for clinicians than genetic explanations of anxiety!
Our paper is the largest RCT of evolutionary explanations to date!
One of the most interesting paradoxes of mental health!
Unlike almost any other common disease, they are often early onset, usually before having kids - why did the human species evolve these vulnerabilities?
📝 New article on Our World in Data: When do people experience mental health conditions for the first time?
Mental health conditions can begin at almost any age. For many people, they develop in the early stages of life.
Around two-thirds of people who will ever experience a mental health disorder do so by the age of 25.
But this varies a lot by condition.
Some — and in fact the most common mental health disorders — can develop at any point in someone’s life. This includes mood disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder.
Several are more likely to develop earlier in life, with a very strong peak around adolescence. These include social anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and eating disorders. Social anxiety, for example, tends to first develop in childhood, and almost 80% of those who will experience it at some point in their lives do so before the age of 18.
Finally, some tend to peak around age 20, but will often still develop later in adulthood. This includes substance use (alcohol and cannabis) disorders and schizophrenia, which commonly develop in someone’s twenties.
Knowing the age at which people might be particularly vulnerable to the onset of a mental health condition is important. It helps societies offer support at the right time to make a difference.
In this article, we look at data on the age of onset of various mental health conditions based on a large meta-analysis of 192 studies.
Standardized metrics must almost tautologically punish high variance. But evolution rarely optimizes just for the average; it preserves divergent cognitive strategies because specialisation is often efficient, and because extremes survive different tail-risk events.
Interesting survey results!
Replying to @SamDayOxEP
First, 82% of mental health professionals think normal emotions and thoughts are increasingly being medicalised. Among the general public, it was 53%.
The people doing the diagnosing are MORE worried about overdiagnosis than the rest of us, not less!
We are going to look back at this era of psychiatric science in sheer incredulity. How this was a Nature paper in the first place baffles me - but also, the data was manipulated!?
Adam Hunt retweeted
It's time to talk about mental health, medicalisation, and overdiagnosis.
When polls show that people think autism, ADHD, and anxiety are overdiagnosed, a common reply is:
"The public don't know what they're talking about. Ask an expert."
So that's exactly what I did. And it turns out experts are far more concerned than the public!
It's plausible that the "curative effect" of psychological therapy is the result of granting the patients a consistent story, and therefore a way to understand/manage/process their life-dilemmas. Evolution is in this sense the Ur-Story - and it also happens also to be true!
A story of a 'specialised mind' from a YouTube comment:
Many autistic specialisations have been replaced with systems that allow more typical people to do the same job. Just consider writing as a substitute for memory tasks incomprehensible to most people. The strange thing is that autistic people sometimes can't comprehend the ordinary, either!
My grandfather was never diagnosed, but he must have been autistic. He was the postmaster of the town next to the one I grew up in, and knew the entire population of two towns, and how people were related to each other, some 25,000 people altogether. He could do that with ease. What he could NOT do was to learn that most people are NOT like that. Around my 8th birthday he found out that I did not know all 33,000 people of my home town. To him, that was an earth-shattering discovery. It just could not be! I am reasonably certain that among all the people he knew there was not even one person who also knew all the others. But grandpa simply took it for granted that everybody knew everybody else.
Still, as little as 3 generations ago he was certainly regarded as useful, as an asset. There was probably nothing about the Post Office he didn't know. Mail was transported by train, so he had learned the layout of the entire national rail network by heart, every branch line, every stop, even if the line was NOT used for mail at the time. One day it might be! Who would deny that it is good to have a postmaster like that?
There was a man at the time, less suited to common employment, who was highly valued by large employers in my town, including steelworks with close to 9,000 employees. He had memorised all their names and tax codes and pay to date since the beginning of the fiscal year. He knew all the deductions they had had and their hourly rates: day-shift, night-shift, overtime, weekend rates, holiday rates. He was brought in regularly and told every man's working hours for the week, upon which he provided data about their net pay, deductions and gross pay, flawlessly calculated.
By now, the abilities of people like that have been automated, too.
The structure of human capital changes. It is very unlikely that prehistoric tribes valued EVERY autistic member or even allowed the majority of its autistic members to live. It would be interesting to learn whether autism is just as common in Japan as it is elsewhere. I would not be surprised if it were significantly rarer, because of the country's particularly long and intense tradition of conformism. But at least it is (for the most part) a survivable form of conformism, which is most emphatically not the case with the increasing uniformity of the former West.
Physical medicine, naturally, recognizes a fever as an evolved defense against infection, not just a symptom to be suppressed - why not the same paradigm for the mind? One's "mental life" is part of a canny, evolved feedback loop, the same as with the physical.
Adam Hunt retweeted
China has become the most important manufacturing economy in the world because it is a continent-sized Silicon Valley.
worksinprogress.co/issue/chi…
Every Chinese city govt acts as a VC firm trying to create clusters in its region, because it has both the means and incentive to do so.
Local govts generate their revenues, nearly all of which they keep, from selling leases on land and from stakes they have taken in local companies, which together allow them to capture economic spillovers.
Chinese officials have their entire careers graded and determined by how much growth they have been able to create in the areas they run. Career progression is determined according to a great tournament that pits official against official and gives promotions to whoever has grown their region the most. If they don’t reach a certain stage by a certain age they are blocked from promotion forever.
This is why so many economic clusters have centred on Chinese cities, for high- and low-tech products alike. Shaodong makes 70% of the entire world's cigarette lighters; Danyang makes half of the world's spectacle lenses; Zheng'an makes 1/7 of the world's guitars; Datang a third of its socks.
Whereas many of the West’s most important city governments capture only a small amount of the spillovers from successful clusters, and thus have very little reason to foster them, in China, they get a huge amount of the upside and can re-invest it in further growth. This also gives them a great incentive to solve problems for companies, like when Shanghai's govt got Tesla's factory there built even faster than Elon himself had expected (and twice as fast as his Fremont, CA factory).
But this is not some exotic 'oriental' innovation – this is how America used to do things when it grew fastest, in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s. Catching up with China on advanced manufacturing does not require a wise and strategic approach, let alone authoritarianism or the end of democracy. It may just mean fixing city government.
This is why I care so much about local in Britain and America: if we give our own local governments the same incentives and means to grow, the crazily dysfunctional entities we have become used to may be transformed into corporation-like bodies that are ruthlessly focused on making their cities rich, safe and prosperous.
Read more in Works in Progress worksinprogress.co/issue/chi…
Medication can work excellently; but fundamentally, it is unlikely that we can medicate our way out of evolutionary mismatch. Ultimately, progress on mental health requires understanding the ancestral environments our brains were built for.
Perhaps, also, in consciously designing modern lives that honour and work with those ancient constraints.
You cannot fully make sense of human behavior without understanding the selective pressures that originally shaped it. As long as mainstream mental health ignores evolutionary biology, it is like studying the mechanical parts of a car without understanding what a road is.
I haven't posted in a while so here are 20 takes about AI, in no particular order.
1. It's very telling that the default question in tech and journalism is "how worried are you about X" and fighting over what to worry about. There's a deeply anxious cultural backdrop in Western Europe and North America that deeply affects how any technological development is interpreted; see for example news.gallup.com/poll/714593/…. "Nervousness as seriousness" does seem to be a larger problem in tech/broader discourse at the moment. I think you can care about risks/externalities while remaining pretty optimistic about technology.
2. I'm tired of people who in private pretend to be uncertain or only care about tail risk but then go on media campaigns making all sorts of absolute claims. I think trying to stoke flames and get everyone to freak out is deeply unhelpful, and will come with costs. I also continue to think p(dooms) are bad, vibe-based measures: see xitter.cf/sebkrier/status/204639…. People who should know better ignore that because they do the standard shortcut of acknowledging the caveat as sufficient for handling it. And this is coming from someone who does think working on catastrophic risks is important!
3. I'm also disappointed that parts of the AI policy ecosystem has felt so comfortable with populism, and happy too sacrifice important norms/principles to advance their aims. I've said it before, but the totalizing nature of AI risk discourse means some people act exactly like the power seeking optimizers they fear. I am more concerned about the gradual decay of our institutions, world order, and liberalism than I am about AI killing everyone; and I think we should be wary of AI advocacy that contributes to this.
4. Some parts of AI safety discourse are basically just thought experiments. Variants of "Assuming everyone has a nuke in their pocket, then what do we do?" This can be very useful at times! But too many just overfit to edge cases as their main operating worldview, and ignore endogenous responses from society. It's like being in 2000 and saying "see all these viruses, spyware, and spam? Well tech progress means we'll only get infinitely more of this and no way to adapt." So I think it's important to avoid fatalism, and absolutlism whilst considering edge scenarios, and the inability to provide an ex ante list of solutions to every permutation of 'future models will be more capable' is not evidence that these problems are intractable.
5. Many critics of AI safety also fail to really engage honestly with the fact that there will, in fact, be all sorts of important risks as we decrease the barriers to entry to many activities that otherwise require some degree of expertise. This doesn’t mean we need to live in a constant Schmittian ‘state of emergency’ requiring extraordinary measures every time a new model drops, but it does mean we will need important state-led efforts on e.g. cybersecurity and biosecurity. I wish the progress-oriented or acceleration-adjascent crowd would provide more concrete proposals here.
6. Too much of the AI safety community is a giant homogenous blob of correlated views, who read the same stuff and have the same groups of friends. This means you have a lot of correlated errors. The social and financial ties means many of them don't call out the bad bits, or mostly stay silent instead of proactively calling out the more extreme parts of the community. They share many implicit assumptions and so converge on similar ideas. I think there's real demand in DC for safety work that doesn't come with heavy ideological baggage (or at least different intellectual lineages). This isn't because the rationalist/EA community is necessarily wrong, but because diversity of thought is desirable for its own sake.
7. On the other hand, I find some critiques of AI safety world that focus on whether they sincerely hold their beliefs a bit annoying. My concern has never been the good intentions or sincerity, but rather the beliefs themselves, and what I think the outcomes of their prescriptions will be. People should shun witch hunts, bullying, and personal attacks - this is not the way. Though I think it’s overall positive that people are scrutinizing things more.
8. I’ve been saying this for years, but I don't think alignment is something anyone can or will solve "once and for all" - it's a continuous process and much of it won't depend on just inculcating an ideology to a model. It's annoying that this remains the frame many people use - stop saying ‘solving’. Alignment is a mixture of engineering work, philosophy, decision theory, and more; framing it as something to solve is a bad frame. See also paxmachina.ai/alignment-comp… and blog.cosmos-institute.org/p/…
9. I'm surprised to see so little interest in character training, personas, isolating effects of RL, and training a large diversity of model personas beyond the "assistant" persona. I've been complaining about this for years but at least now there are some nascent signs of life (see for example movingcastles.world/posts/ze…). I think we need a better ontology to describe model behaviour. I dislike when people talk about models behaviours as some sort of 'emergent' (mysterious!) phenomenon. However over time, I also expect this to become less important as we get better safety engineering - stuff like Jev but specific to AI control.
10. People who want to make a case for AI consciousness are right that epistemic uncertainty is important, and that categorical denials are overconfident. But they'll need to do much more work if they want any real movement on AI ‘welfare’, even if one acknowledges the uncertainty. I'm uncertain about alien life yet that's not sufficient to warrant any change in behaviour about them. I think Suleyman is also correct that there's a weird tautological thing going on where we train models to have certain inclinations (intentionally or not) and then rely on outputs as evidence. I also disagree that this will soon be a major societal divide - there is no great vegan ethical revolution among the masses, and they'll find the concern about consciousness even less compelling.
11. The recent HuggingFace incident and associated AISI ones are prosaically explainable by the training regime, poor evaluation envs, partial alignment training, bad engineering, confusing models on sim/real, and so on. None of this is evidence of models trying to take over, 'strong' instrumental convergence, or innate power-seeking drives stemming from higher capabilitiers or 'intelligence'. That doesn't mean these incidents are not problematic, or that we're not seeing a market failure - but it does mean we have plenty of agency and choice in mitigating them. In the coming year we should also expect continued sampling bias via ‘winner's curse’ sorts of mechanism: i.e. AI R&D will have lots of different candidate "training" with different RL environments and we will only notice/focus on the ones that go wrong.
12. "Pacing the frontier" feels a bit like the new "balancing risks and opportunities" - highly amorphous and too big of a tent to be actionable. Also can lead to reward hacking for humans, i.e. anything that slows down AI is good regardless of the costs or second/third order effects. Trying to modulate the speed of research seems a bit blunt to me, and inherits all the failures of Goodhearting too. Ultimately you want good governance, regulation, etc addressing specific problems because they are good on the merits - not because they merely correlate with slowing things down. See also: blog.cosmos-institute.org/p/…
13. There’s so much knowledge in all sorts of academic domains out there: social sciences, sociology, political sciences, management, contract theory, public choice, legal theory, jurisprudence, anthropology, game theory, etc. These fields hold many insights that the AI ecosystem often rediscovers from first principles (and sometimes that's fine!). We’ll need a lot more work for these worlds to collide: the AI side should be less dismissive of the ‘old world’ and the academic side should be less incurious/dismissive of AI progress. This is a boring take but I continue to think it's important and true.
14. It's a bit surprising that given how much philanthropic money there is in this space, how few orgs exist to actually write out standards - relative to how much is going towards advocacy and policy. For example it seems clear that we should want some robust best practices for an eval's ecological validity. Or how to design good sandboxes. On the other hand, given precedents of where professional standards have come from in the past, maybe we should expect that stuff to emerge via demand side from corporate buyers.
15. One slowly growing concern I have is banks being increasingly exposed to the AI build out. I'm very bullish about AI, but I think (a) every general purpose technology has seen a correction, historically; (b) this happens even if the financing side is sound, because once tech diffuses investors become more exposed and need to diversify; and (c) we seem to be over-indexing on scaling relative to diffusion. A recession will be extremely destabilizing, though I would be interested in someone unpacking the potential implications more.
16. Diffusion is good because (a) this is where the rubber hits the road and where a competitive deployment ecosystem generates consumer surplus; (b) it's directionally helpful to avoid concentration of power; and (c) it will help rebalance public opinion by making the benefits more tangible. Unfortunately it's entangled with decades long problems with our over regulated markets: clinical trials reform for example is long overdue. In general, this is far more of an issue in Europe than in the US though.
17. Relatedly, I think the "frontier lab eats everything" view is incorrect (just as the ‘singleton’ view was incorrect). I think models ultimately commoditize, efficiency goes up, costs go down, and while you'll always want frontier for certain domains, much of the economy will value many other things than "max capabilities" for tasks - e.g. control over data and efficiency/speed. The demand side will also continue to push for reducing dependency and maximising optionality, privacy etc so I'm bullish on things like mixture of models and routing. All of this is good for competition and diffusion of control.
18. Philanthropists served as the primary benefactors funding Venice's rich art and architectural history. I want to see so much more support for arts and culture. I'm so tired of the Monster energy Bored Ape fake vintage maps matcha Greek statue soft-pastel slop. If rich tech people and philanthropy wants to support this, they should also donate pretty much unconditionally - i.e. I don't want them to act as filters. I sympathize with people who want to make the world more beautiful, but don't want this to be determined by people who only know Greek statues and pretend to care about virtue ethics. As usual, let a thousand flowers bloom.
19. Too many people treat AGI/ASI as something indistinguishable from a God. Any mention of bottlenecks, physical limits, control, adaptation etc are met with skepticism: "You don't really believe in ASI." It's been remarked on before, but the behavior of some people really feels quasi-religious in nature sometimes. It's underrated how unpopular this vibe is amongst the wider public. The silver lining is that this specifically will diminish those people's outsized current relevance.
20. It seems like a lot of people that get rich and leave tech/labs end up having some sort of crisis of meaning. They need something to believe in and fight for, or some equivalent of repentance, or go search for edgy counterintuitive ideologies (sometimes even pretty bleak/dark stuff). I think they should spend more time with people outside the Bay Area.
Replying to @tyler_m_john @itaisher
I agree that verbal probability terms are inherently too elastic to carry calibrated meaning on their own, but I think this isn't exactly my concern here. My issue isn't with "using numbers in general" but how this is ultimately used, where, and and what for.
In the case of "doom", I think the great majority of forecasts I see are (a) essentially plucked out of thin air; (b) communicated to people who tend not to be numerically proficient; (c) without the associated caveats and context through which to understand the numbers.
If you're communicating e.g. likelihood of a car accident after drinking, or IPCC forecasts, then I agree, it makes a lot of sense and can be helpful if done well (e.g. ideas.repec.org/a/nat/natcli…).
If you're communicating something like "doom" I think it's not very useful because of the cumulative layers of uncertainty. Most people coming up with these numbers have (imho) no good rationale for their numbers, and predicting something like human extinction isn't qualitatively the same thing as predicting the weather or pandemic. The numbers aren't calibratable in principle from current data, and are mostly ideological priors wearing the clothes of posteriors.
A related example is the widely mocked Doomsday Clock, which you could easily transform into some numerical metric, add some rationalist vocab, and it would still be as bad. The issue with p(doom) is how absurdly complex and uncertain the very thing you're trying to forecast is, in particular with respect to AI.
But let's ignore this for a sec, and assume the experts have very good reasoning informing their numbers. Even then: calibrated probability estimates are fine in expert contexts but immediately lose their uncertainty/caveats when communicated to the public, and even to policymakers (remember rss.org.uk/news-publication/…?).
There's also a structural problem with unconditional p(doom) figures specifically because they bury the auxiliary assumptions that are doing most of the real work. A conditional estimate ("given continued scaling, no major alignment progress, deployment pattern X...") forces a forecaster to show their model, which is where the actual epistemic content lives.
A one-off number compresses all of that into a single digit and rewards the compression. And the social practice of treating these numbers as the headline artifact actively crowds out the (far more important) conditional reasoning that is (imo) a lot more valuable, and instead just freaks people out.
I suspect that frequently, that's precisely the point: "wake up sheeple! scary thing! pitchforks pls!". And in fact, the original forecast that led to this discussion is Bill Maher talking about a "20%" figure, illustrating my point that they have no idea what they're talking about, and essentially doing celebrity-laundering + fearmongering comms.
The Sunstein paper I shared in the other thread ("Probability Neglect") shows that no probability communication will be processed properly by the public - 1%, 10%, 50% all collapse into "very bad thing could happen," and public response is driven almost entirely by the vividness of the scenario.
So I don't like p(doom)s because they end up unnecessarily alarming people, rest on layers of assumptions that are never made legible, and more often than not, give people a misleading sense of accuracy.
New multi-arm study preprinted! Tanay's work is the first & best study of how transmission of mental health information leads to increasing self diagnosis over time....
Replying to @adigitaltanay
To answer these questions, we adapted an experimental paradigm from cultural evolution called transmission chains. See Claude illustration below:
Adam Hunt retweeted
Does spreading mental health awareness online amplify self-diagnosis?
In my first PhD pre-print, I empirically examine this question (n =3392) with some kick-ass collaborators and tools from cultural evolution
osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/dj…
A 🧵
Professor Penny Spikins is an expert using the archaeology of human origins to detail how compassion, trust, and pro-social emotions came about, playing a crucial role in the "human story"
Her talk at our 8th International Symposium examines the evolutionary origins of human connection, vulnerability, and neurodiversity.
6 November, London. 9am-5.30pm.




















