SOME INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND STRATEGIC CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNOW 1. GAME THEORY Game theory is the study of how people, organisations, or countries make decisions when their outcomes depend on what others do. I’m going to write about Game Theory as a standalone topic later, but the central idea is simple: your best decision often depends on what you expect other people to do, and their best decision may depend on what they expect you to do. Example: Nigeria is deciding whether to reduce the price of its exports, while another country is deciding whether to do the same. Each country must consider what the other might do before making its decision. 2. BALANCE OF POWER This is when countries build their military, economic, or diplomatic strength to prevent one country from becoming so powerful that it can dominate others. Example: If one country in a region becomes too powerful, neighbouring countries may form an alliance to prevent it from controlling the entire region. 3. TREATY A treaty is a formal agreement between countries that creates obligations under international law. Example: Two neighbouring countries sign an agreement promising not to attack each other and to resolve disputes peacefully. That agreement can be a treaty. 4. DISARMAMENT Disarmament means reducing or eliminating weapons that pose serious threats to international peace and security. Example: Two countries agree to destroy some of their nuclear weapons to reduce the risk of war. 5. NON-PROLIFERATION Non-proliferation means preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, to additional countries or other unauthorised actors. Example: Countries agree that nations that do not already possess nuclear weapons should not acquire them, while working within international agreements designed to prevent their spread. 6. DETERRENCE Deterrence is the strategy of discouraging an opponent from taking an unwanted action by convincing them that the consequences will be too costly. Example: A country warns another country that an attack will be met with a military response. The aim is to make the other country think twice before attacking. 7. MUTUAL ASSURED DESTRUCTION (MAD) This is a nuclear strategy in which two opposing nuclear powers can inflict devastating destruction on each other, even after being attacked first. The idea is that neither side would risk launching a nuclear war because both could be destroyed in the process. Example: If Country A knows that attacking Country B with nuclear weapons would trigger a response capable of destroying Country A too, that fear may prevent both countries from starting a nuclear war. 8. COLD WAR A Cold War is a prolonged period of intense rivalry between powerful countries in which they compete politically, economically, ideologically, and militarily without engaging in a full-scale direct war against each other. Example: The United States and the Soviet Union competed for global influence, built up their nuclear arsenals, and supported opposing sides in conflicts around the world during the Cold War. 9. PROXY WAR A proxy war occurs when powerful countries support opposing sides in a conflict instead of fighting each other directly. They may provide weapons, money, training, intelligence, or other forms of assistance. Example: Country A provides weapons and funding to one armed group, while Country B supports its rival. The two countries are pursuing their interests through local forces rather than fighting each other directly. 10. SELECTIVE MORALITY Selective morality is when someone applies moral standards inconsistently, condemning an action when an opponent commits it but excusing or ignoring the same action when an ally commits it. This is common in international politics, where countries sometimes place strategic interests above the principles they publicly defend. Example: A powerful country condemns human rights abuses in an enemy country but remains silent when an allied country commits similar abuses.

SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL, SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNOW 1. STOCKHOLM SYNDROME: A term used to describe situations where hostages or abuse victims develop positive feelings towards their captors or abusers. Example: A hostage begins defending their captor and opposing people trying to rescue them. 2. ZERO-SUM GAME: A situation where one person's gain is exactly equal to another person's loss. Example: Two friends apply for the same job, but only one person will be employed. In this situation, one person's gain is indeed the other's loss. 3. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: The mental discomfort that occurs when your actions contradict your beliefs, often leading you to justify your behaviour rather than admit you are wrong. Example: Someone who believes lying is wrong gets caught lying and starts explaining why their own lie was justified. 4. THE JUST-WORLD FALLACY: The belief that people generally get what they deserve. Example: Someone loses their job and struggles to feed their family, and instead of acknowledging that bad things can happen to anyone, people conclude that they must have been lazy or irresponsible. They assume that because someone is suffering, they must have done something to deserve it. 5. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: When repeated experiences of having no control over a situation lead someone to stop trying to change it, even when opportunities become available. Example: An employee who has repeatedly been ignored when reporting workplace problems eventually stops speaking up, even when a new manager is willing to listen. 6. THE PRISONER'S DILEMMA: A game theory scenario in which two people acting in their individual interests may end up worse off than if they had cooperated. Example: Two competing businesses keep slashing their prices to outdo each other until neither makes a reasonable profit, even though both would have benefited from avoiding the price war. 7. THE BYSTANDER EFFECT: The tendency for people to be less likely to intervene in an emergency when others are present. Example: A passenger collapses in a crowded bus, but everyone waits for someone else to help, assuming another person will take responsibility. 8. THE HEDONIC TREADMILL: The tendency to get used to the things that once made us happy, causing their excitement to fade as they become part of our everyday lives. Example: Someone spends years working towards owning their dream car. When they finally buy it, they are overjoyed, but a few months later, the excitement wears off, and they start wanting a better car. They forget that what they now take for granted was once what they prayed and worked so hard to achieve. 9. PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE: When people privately disagree with something but assume everyone else supports it, so they publicly conform. Example: Everyone in a meeting thinks a proposal is terrible, but nobody objects because each person assumes the others support it. 10 THE MATTHEW EFFECT: The tendency for people who already have advantages to accumulate even more advantages. Example: Two equally talented graduates apply for jobs, but one gets more opportunities because they attended a prestigious university and already have influential connections. 11. THE EINSTELLUNG EFFECT: When a familiar way of solving a problem prevents us from recognising a better solution. Example: A business owner keeps using an outdated system because it is what they have always used, even though a simpler and cheaper alternative is available. 12. THE HALO EFFECT: When one positive quality makes us assume someone possesses other positive qualities. Example:People assume an attractive, well-dressed person is intelligent and trustworthy without having any evidence of either.